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New Zealand (Aotearoa in Māori) is an island
country in the south-western Pacific Ocean
comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and
the South Island) and numerous smaller islands. The
country is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi)
east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly
1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific
island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga.
Due to its remoteness, it was one of the last lands
to be settled by humans. During its long isolation
New Zealand developed a distinctive fauna dominated
by birds, many of which became extinct after the
arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a
mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered
in forest. The country's varied topography and its
sharp mountain peaks owe much to the uplift of land
and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and
Indo-Australian Plates clashing underfoot.
Polynesians settled New Zealand in 1250–1300 AD and
developed a distinctive Māori culture, and Europeans
first made contact in 1642 AD. The introduction of
potatoes and muskets triggered upheaval among Māori
early during the 19th century, which led to the
inter-tribal Musket Wars. In 1840 the British and
Māori signed a treaty making New Zealand a colony of
the British Empire. Immigrant numbers increased
sharply and conflicts escalated into the Land Wars,
which resulted in much Māori land being confiscated
in the mid North Island. Economic depressions were
followed by periods of political reform, with women
gaining the vote during the 1890s, and a welfare
state being established from the 1930s. After World
War II, New Zealand joined Australia and the United
States in the ANZUS security treaty, although the
United States later suspended the treaty after New
Zealand banned nuclear weapons. New Zealanders
enjoyed one of the highest standards of living in
the world in the 1950s, but the 1970s saw a deep
recession, worsened by oil shocks and the United
Kingdom's entry into the European Economic
Community. The country underwent major economic
changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from
a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy.
Markets for New Zealand's agricultural exports have
diversified greatly since the 1970s, with
once-dominant exports of wool being overtaken by
dairy products, meat, and recently wine.
The majority of New Zealand's population is of
European descent; the indigenous Māori are the
largest minority, followed by Asians and non-Māori
Polynesians. English, Māori and New Zealand Sign
Language are the official languages, with English
predominant. Much of New Zealand's culture is
derived from Māori and early British settlers. Early
European art was dominated by landscapes and to a
lesser extent portraits of Māori. A recent
resurgence of Māori culture has seen their
traditional arts of carving, weaving and tattooing
become more mainstream. Many artists now combine
Māori and Western techniques to create unique art
forms. The country's culture has also been broadened
by globalisation and increased immigration from the
Pacific Islands and Asia. New Zealand's diverse
landscape provides many opportunities for outdoor
pursuits and has provided the backdrop for a number
of big budget movies.
New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils
and 67 territorial authorities for local government
purposes; these have less autonomy than the
country's long defunct provinces did. Nationally,
executive political power is exercised by the
Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. Queen Elizabeth
II is the country's head of state and is represented
by a Governor-General. The Queen's Realm of New
Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent
territory); the Cook Islands and Niue
(self-governing but in free association); and the
Ross Dependency, New Zealand's territorial claim in
Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the Pacific
Islands Forum, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,
United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, and the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development.
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a
parliamentary democracy, although its constitution
is not codified. Queen Elizabeth II is the Queen of
New Zealand and the head of state. The Queen is
represented by the Governor-General, whom she
appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister. The
Governor-General can exercise the Crown's
prerogative powers (such as reviewing cases of
injustice and making appointments of Cabinet
ministers, ambassadors and other key public
officials) and in rare situations, the reserve
powers (the power to dismiss a Prime Minister,
dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a
bill into law). The powers of the Queen and the
Governor-General are limited by constitutional
constraints and they cannot normally be exercised
without the advice of Cabinet.
The Parliament of New Zealand holds legislative
power and consists of the Sovereign (represented by
the Governor-General) and the House of
Representatives. The supremacy of the House over the
Sovereign was established in England by the Bill of
Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New
Zealand. The House of Representatives is
democratically elected and a Government is formed
from the party or coalition with the majority of
seats. If no majority is formed a minority
government can be formed if support from other
parties is obtained through confidence votes. The
Governor-General appoints ministers under advice
from the Prime Minister, who is by convention the
Parliamentary leader of the governing party or
coalition. Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by
the Prime Minister, is the highest policy-making
body in government and responsible for deciding
significant government actions. By convention,
members of cabinet are bound by collective
responsibility to decisions made by cabinet.
Judges and judicial officers are appointed
non-politically and under strict rules regarding
tenure to help maintain constitutional independence
from the government. This theoretically allows the
judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the
legislation enacted by Parliament without other
influences on their decisions. The Privy Council in
London was the country's final court of appeal until
2004, when it was replaced with the newly
established Supreme Court of New Zealand. The
judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice, includes the
Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate
courts.
Almost all parliamentary general elections between
1853 and 1996 were held under the first past the
post voting system. The elections since 1930 have
been dominated by two political parties, National
and Labour. Since 1996, a form of proportional
representation called Mixed Member Proportional (MMP)
has been used. Under the MMP system each person has
two votes; one is for the 65 electoral seats
(including seven reserved for Māori), and the other
is for a party. The remaining 55 seats are assigned
so that representation in parliament reflects the
party vote, although a party has to win one
electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote
before it is eligible for these seats. Between March
2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only
country in the world in which all the highest
offices in the land (Head of State,
Governor-General, Prime Minister, Speaker and Chief
Justice) were occupied simultaneously by women.
The early European settlers divided New Zealand into
provinces, which had a degree of autonomy. Due to
financial pressures and the desire to consolidate
railways, education, land sales and other policies,
government was centralised and the provinces were
abolished in 1876. As a result, New Zealand now has
no separately represented subnational entities. The
provinces are remembered in regional public holidays
and sporting rivalries.
Since 1876, various councils have administered local
areas under legislation determined by the central
government. In 1989, the government reorganised
local government into the current two-tier structure
of regional councils and territorial authorities.
The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now
been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities
and 11 regional councils. The regional councils'
role is to regulate "the natural environment with
particular emphasis on resource management", while
territorial authorities are responsible for sewage,
water, local roads, building consents and other
local matters. Five of the territorial councils are
unitary authorities and also act as regional
councils. The territorial authorities consist of 13
city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham
Islands Council. While officially the Chatham
Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it
undertakes many functions of a regional council.
The Realm of New Zealand is one of 16 realms within
the commonwealth and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau,
the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue. The
Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in
free association with New Zealand. The New Zealand
Parliament cannot pass legislation for these
countries, but with their consent can act on behalf
of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is a
non-self-governing territory that uses the New
Zealand flag and anthem, but is administered by a
council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan
atoll). The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's
territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates
the Scott Base research facility. New Zealand
citizenship law treats all parts of the realm
equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the
Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau and the Ross Dependency
before 2006 are New Zealand citizens. Further
conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards.
Early Māori adapted the tropically-based east
Polynesian culture in line with the challenges
associated with a larger and more diverse
environment, eventually developing their own
distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely
communal with families (whanau), sub-tribes (hapu)
and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira) whose
position was subject to the community's approval.
The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of
their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced
Māori culture, particularly with the introduction of
Christianity. However, Māori still regard their
allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their
identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of
other Polynesian peoples. More recently American,
Australian, Asian and other European cultures have
exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori
Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika,
the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an
annual event in Auckland.
Two women in long flowing yellow skirts either side
of a man in a short black skirt mid dance
Cook Islands dancers at Auckland's Pasifika festival
The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to
the image of New Zealanders being rugged,
industrious problem solvers. Modesty was expected
and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome",
where high achievers received harsh criticism. At
the time New Zealand was not known as an
intellectual country. From the early 20th century
until the late 1960s Māori culture was suppressed by
the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New
Zealanders. In the 1960s, as higher education became
more available and cities expanded urban culture
began to dominate. Even though the majority of the
population now lives in cities, much of New
Zealand's art, literature, film and humour has rural
themes.
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